Cloning

CLONING

What Is Cloning?

Cloning is the process of creating genetically identical copies of biological matter. This may include genes, cells ,tissues or entire organisms. 

Types of Cloning

When we speak of cloning, we typically think of organism cloning, but there are actually three different types of cloning. 

· Molecular Cloning 

Molecular cloning focuses on making identical copies of DNA molecules. This type of cloning is also called gene cloning. 

· Organism Cloning 

Organism cloning involves making an identical copy of an entire organism. This type of cloning is also called reproductive cloning. 

· Therapeutic Cloning 

Therapeutic cloning involves the cloning of human embryos for the production of stem cells. The embryos are eventually destroyed in this process. 

Reproductive Cloning Techniques.

Cloning techniques are laboratory processes used to produce offspring that are genetically identical to the donor parent. 

Clones of adult animals are created by a process called somatic cell nuclear transfer. 

Cloned Animals.

Scientists have been successful in cloning a number of different animals. 

How do you spell breakthrough? D-O-L-L-Y

Scientists have succeeded in cloning an adult mammal. And Dolly doesn't have a daddy!

First Dolly and Now Millie

Scientists have successfully produced cloned transgenic goats. 

Cloning Clones

Researchers have developed a way to create multi-generations of identical mice. 

Cloned Animals

View pictures of cloned animals from Guardian Unlimited. 

Cloning Problems

What are the risks of cloning ? One of the main concerns as it relates to human cloning is that the current processes used in animal cloning are only successful a very small percentage of the time. 

Another concern is that the cloned animals that do survive tend to have various health problems and shorter life spans. 

Scientist have not yet figured out why these problems occur and there is no reason to think that these same problems wouldn't happen in human cloning. 

Cloning and Ethics

Should humans be cloned? A major objection to cloning for research is that cloned embryos are produced and ultimately destroyed. For more information on cloning and ethics, see: 

Biological Ethics: Cloning Revisited

Cloning still raises very serious ethical issues. 

Bioethics.net

Information from the American Journal of Bioethics on the ethical issues of cloning.

LINUX

LINUX

Events leading to creation

Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie

After AT&T had dropped out of the Multics project, the Unix operating system was conceived and implemented by Ken Thompson andDennis Ritchie (both of AT&T Bell Laboratories) in 1969 and first released in 1970. Later they rewrote it in a new programming language,C, to make it portable. The availability and portability of Unix caused it to be widely adopted, copied and modified by academic institutions and businesses.

In 1983, Richard Stallman started the GNU project with the goal of creating a free UNIX-like operating system.[2] As part of this work, he wrote the GNU General Public License (GPL). By the early 1990s there was almost enough available software to create a full operating system. However, the GNU kernel, called Hurd, failed to attract enough attention from developers, leaving GNU incomplete.

Another free operating system project, initially released in 1977, was the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD). This was developed by UC Berkeley from the 6th edition of Unix from AT&T. Since BSD contained Unix code that AT&T owned, AT&T filed a lawsuit (USL v. BSDi) in the early 1990s against the University of California. This strongly limited the development and adoption of BSD.[3][4]

In 1985, Intel released the 80386, the first x86 microprocessor with 32-bit instruction set and MMU with paging.[5]

In 1986, Maurice J. Bach, of AT&T Bell Labs, published The Design of the UNIX Operating System.[6] This definitive description principally covered the System V Release 2 kernel, with some new features from Release 3 and BSD.

MINIX, a Unix-like system intended for academic use, was released by Andrew S. Tanenbaum to exemplify the principles conveyed in his textbook, Operating Systems: Design and Implementation in 1987. While source code for the system was available, modification and redistribution were restricted. In addition, MINIX's 16-bit design was not well adapted to the 32-bit features of the increasingly cheap and popular Intel 386 architecture for personal computers. In the early nineties a commercial UNIX operating system for Intel 386 PCs was too expensive for private users.[7]

These factors and the lack of a widely adopted, free kernel provided the impetus for Torvalds's starting his project. He has stated that if either the GNU or 386BSD kernels were available at the time, he likely would not have written his own.

The creation of Linux

Linus Torvalds in 2002

In 1991, in Helsinki, Linus Torvalds began a project that later became the Linux kernel. He wrote the program specifically for the hardware he was using and independent of an operating system because he wanted to use the functions of his new PC with an 80386 processor. Development was done on MINIX using the GNU C compiler. The GNU C Compiler is still the main choice for compiling Linux today. The code however, can be built with other compilers, such as the Intel C Compiler.

As Torvalds wrote in his book Just for Fun,[10] he eventually ended up writing an operating system kernel. On 25 August 1991, he announced this system in a Usenet posting to the newsgroup "comp.os.minix.":[11]

Hello everybody out there using minix -

I'm doing a (free) operating system (just a hobby, won't be big and professional like gnu) for 386(486) AT clones. This has been brewing since april, and is starting to get ready. I'd like any feedback on things people like/dislike in minix, as my OS resembles it somewhat (same physical layout of the file-system (due to practical reasons) among other things).

I've currently ported bash(1.08) and gcc(1.40), and things seem to work. This implies that I'll get something practical within a few months, and I'd like to know what features most people would want. Any suggestions are welcome, but I won't promise I'll implement them :-)

Linus (torvalds@kruuna.helsinki.fi)

PS. Yes – it's free of any minix code, and it has a multi-threaded fs. It is NOT portable (uses 386 task switching etc), and it probably never will support anything other than AT-harddisks, as that's all I have :-(.

—Linus Torvalds[12]

Naming[edit]

Floppy discs holding a very early version of Linux

Linus Torvalds had wanted to call his invention Freax, a portmanteau of "free", "freak", and "x" (as an allusion to Unix). During the start of his work on the system, he stored the files under the name "Freax" for about half of a year. Torvalds had already considered the name "Linux," but initially dismissed it as too egotistical.[10]

In order to facilitate development, the files were uploaded to the FTP server (ftp.funet.fi) of FUNET in September 1991. Ari Lemmke, Torvald's coworker at the Helsinki University of Technology (HUT) who was one of the volunteer administrators for the FTP server at the time, did not think that "Freax" was a good name. So, he named the project "Linux" on the server without consulting Torvalds.[10] Later, however, Torvalds consented to "Linux".

To demonstrate how the word "Linux" should be pronounced ([ˈliːnɵks]), Torvalds included an audio guide ( listen (help·info)) with the kernel source code.[13]

Linux under the GNU GPL[edit]

Torvalds first published the Linux kernel under its own licence, which had a restriction on commercial activity.

The software to use with the kernel was software developed as part of the GNU project licensed under the GNU General Public License, a free software license. The first release of the Linux kernel, Linux 0.01, included a binary of GNU's Bash shell.[14]

In the "Notes for linux release 0.01", Torvalds lists the GNU software that is required to run Linux:[14]

Sadly, a kernel by itself gets you nowhere. To get a working system you need a shell, compilers, a library etc. These are separate parts and may be under a stricter (or even looser) copyright. Most of the tools used with linux are GNU software and are under the GNU copyleft. These tools aren't in the distribution - ask me (or GNU) for more info.[14]

In 1992, he suggested releasing the kernel under the GNU General Public License. He first announced this decision in the release notes of version 0.12.[15] In the middle of December 1992 he published version 0.99 using the GNU GPL.[16]

Linux and GNU developers worked to integrate GNU components with Linux to make a fully functional and free operating system.[17]

Torvalds has stated, “making Linux GPL'd was definitely the best thing I ever did.”[18]

GNU/Linux naming controversy

For more details on this topic, see GNU/Linux naming controversy.

The designation "Linux" was initially used by Torvalds only for the Linux kernel. The kernel was, however, frequently used together with other software, especially that of the GNU project. This quickly became the most popular adoption of GNU software. In June 1994 in GNU's bulletin, Linux was referred to as a "free UNIX clone", and the Debian project began calling its product Debian GNU/Linux. In May 1996, Richard Stallman published the editor Emacs 19.31, in which the type of system was renamed from Linux to Lignux. This spelling was intended to refer specifically to the combination of GNU and Linux, but this was soon abandoned in favor of "GNU/Linux".[19]

This name garnered varying reactions. The GNU and Debian projects use the name, although most people simply use the term "Linux" to refer to the combination.[20]

Official mascot[edit]

Main article: Tux

Tux

Torvalds announced in 1996 that there would be a mascot for Linux, a penguin. This was due to the fact when they were about to select the mascot, Torvalds did mention he was bitten by a Little Penguin (Eudyptula minor, J. R. Forster 1781) on a visit to the National Zoo & Aquarium, Canberra, Australia. Larry Ewingprovided the original draft of today's well known mascot based on this description. The name Tux was suggested by James Hughes as derivative of Torvalds' UniX.[10]

New development

Kernel

There are many other well-known maintainers for the Linux kernel beside Torvalds such as Alan Cox and Marcelo Tosatti. Cox maintained version 2.2 of the kernel until it was discontinued at the end of 2003. Likewise, Tosatti maintained version 2.4 of the kernel until the middle of 2006. Andrew Morton steers the development and administration of the 2.6 kernel, which was released on 18 December 2003 in its first stable incarnation. Also the older branches are still constantly improved.

Community

The largest part of the work on Linux is performed by the community: the thousands of programmers around the world that use Linux and send their suggested improvements to the maintainers. Various companies have also helped not only with the development of the Kernels, but also with the writing of the body of auxiliary software, which is distributed with Linux.

It is released both by organized projects such as Debian, and by projects connected directly with companies such as Fedora and openSUSE. The members of the respective projects meet at various conferences and fairs, in order to exchange ideas. One of the largest of these fairs is the LinuxTag in Germany (currently in Berlin), where about 10,000 people assemble annually, in order to discuss Linux and the projects associated with it.

Open Source Development Lab and Linux Foundation[edit]

The Open Source Development Lab (OSDL) was created in the year 2000, and is an independent nonprofit organization which pursues the goal of optimizing Linux for employment in data centers and in the carrier range. It served as sponsored working premises for Linus Torvalds and also for Andrew Morton (until the middle of 2006 when Morton transferred to Google). Torvalds works full-time on behalf of OSDL, developing the Linux Kernels.

On 22 January 2007, OSDL and the Free Standards Group merged to form The Linux Foundation, narrowing their respective focuses to that of promoting GNU/Linux in competition with Microsoft Windows.[21]

Companies

Despite being open-source, a few companies profit from Linux. These companies, most of which are also members of the Open Source Development Lab, invest substantial resources into the advancement and development of Linux, in order to make it suited for various application areas. This includes hardware donations for driver developers, cash donations for people who develop Linux software, and the employment of Linux programmers at the company. Some examples are Dell, IBM and HP, which use Linux on their own servers, and Red Hat, which maintains its own distribution. Likewise Digia supports Linux by the development and LGPL licensing of Qt, which makes the development of KDEpossible, and by employing some of the X and KDE developers.

Desktop environments

KDE was the first advanced desktop environment, but it was controversial due to the then-proprietary Qt toolkit used.[22] GNOME was developed as an alternative due to licensing questions.[22] The two use a different underlying toolkit and thus involve different programming, and are sponsored by two different groups, German nonprofit KDE e.V. and the United States nonprofit GNOME Foundation.

As of April 2007, one journalist estimated that KDE had 65% of market share versus 26% for GNOME.[22] In January 2008, KDE 4 was released prematurely with bugs, driving users to GNOME.[23] GNOME 3, released in April 2011, was called an "unholy mess" by Linus Torvalds due to its controversial design changes.[24]

Dissatisfaction with GNOME 3 led to a fork, Cinnamon, which is developed primarily by Linux Mint developer Clement LeFebvre. This restores the more traditional desktop environment with marginal improvements.

The relatively well-funded distribution Ubuntu designed (and released in June 2011) another user interface called Unity which is radically different from the conventional desktop environment and has been criticized as having various flaws[25] and lacking configurability.[26] The motivation was a single desktop environment for desktops and tablets,[citation needed] although as of November 2012 Unity has yet to be used widely in tablets. However, the smartphone and tablet version of Ubuntu and its Unity interface was unveiled by Canonical Ltd in January 2013.

OTROS

GREETING CARD - CARTA DE SALUDO

A greeting card is an illustrated piece of card or high quality paper featuring an expression of friendship or other sentiment. Although greeting cards are usually given on special occasions such as birthdays, Christmas or other holidays, they are also sent to convey thanks or express other feelings. Greeting cards, usually packaged with an envelope, come in a variety of styles. There are both mass-produced as well as handmade versions that are distributed by hundreds of companies large and small. While typically inexpensive, more elaborate cards with die-cuts or glued-on decorations may be more expensive.

Hallmark Cards and American Greetings are the two largest producers of greeting cards in the world today.

In Western countries and increasingly in other societies, many people traditionally mail seasonally themed cards to their friends and relatives in December. Many service businesses also send cards to their customers in this season, usually with a universally acceptable non-religious message such as "happy holidays" or "season's greetings".

The Greeting Card Association is an international trade organization representing the interests of greeting card and stationery manufacturers. John Beeder, former president of the Greeting Card Association, says greeting cards are effective tools to communicate important feelings to people you care about: "Anyone feels great when they receive an unexpected card in the mail. For me, there’s nothing like a greeting card to send a special message. I’m proud to be a part of an industry that not only keeps people connected, but uses both imagery and the power of words to help us express our emotions.”

TYPES - TIPOS

Counter cards: Greeting cards that are sold individually. This contrasts with boxed cards.^[1]

Standard Greeting Cards: A standard greeting card is printed on high-quality paper (such as card stock), and is rectangular and folded, with a picture or decorative motif on the front. Inside is a pre-printed message appropriate for the occasion, along with a blank space for the sender to add a signature or handwritten message. A matching envelope is sold with the card. Some cards and envelopes feature fancy materials, such as gold leaf, ribbons or glitter.

Photo Greeting Cards: In recent years, photo greeting cards have gained widespread popularity and come in two main types. The first type are photo insert cards in which a hole has been cut in the centre. A photo slides in just like a frame. The second type are printed photo cards in which the photo is combined with artwork and printed, usually on a high-end digital press, directly onto the face of the card. Both types are most popular for sending holiday greetings such as Christmas, Hanukkah & for baby showers.

Personalised Greeting Cards: Websites using special personalisation technology, such as Moonpig, allow consumers to personalise a card which is then printed and sent directly to the recipient.

Reusable Greeting Cards: These are greeting cards for the budget conscious. There are two common formats for reusable cards. Firstly there are cards with slits in them positioned to hold pages. Secondly there notepad style cards where pages stick to the back of the cards. The pages that have been used for reusable cards can be removed after being received and fresh pages can be used to reuse the cards.

Risqué Greeting Cards: Some companies offer risqué greeting cards, with adult-based humor and cartoons. The humor in these cards can sometimes be offensive to more conservative parts of the population.

Musical Greeting Cards: Recently greeting cards have been made that play music or sound when they are opened. They are commonly 3D handmade birthday cards which play traditional celebration songs such as Happy Birthday To You.

Electronic Greeting Cards: (also called E-cards) Greeting cards can also be sent electronically. Flash-based cards can be sent by email, and many sites such as Facebook enable users to send greetings. More recently, services have launched which enable users to send greetings to a mobile phone by text message or use mobile app for this purpose such cards are called Mobile E-cards or MCards. Many of these electronic services offer open or anonymous chat, to enable further discussion.

Pop-Up Cards: Pop-Up Cards are normally cards that, once opened, have a picture coming outward, giving the reader a surprise. Pictures and printed messages in greeting cards come in various styles, from fine art to humorous to profane. Non-specific cards, unrelated to any occasion, might feature a picture (or a pocket to paste in a personal photograph) but no pre-printed message.

TARJETAS DE GRADUACION - GRADUATION CARDS

La palabra graduación se utiliza para designar a aquel acto o momento en el cual una persona accede a la finalización de una carrera de estudios de diferente nivel académico. El acto de graduación está actualmente muy estereotipada y es fácil identificar a una persona con una túnica larga y oscura y un sombrero cuadrado con tal ceremonia. Sin embargo, cada región posee sus particularidades respecto de cómo celebrar el momento.

TARJETAS DE SEMANA SANTA - EASTER

SEMANA SANTA

La Semana Santa es la conmemoración anual cristiana de la Pasión, Muerte y Resurrección de Jesús de Nazaret. Por ello, es un período de intensa actividad litúrgica dentro de las diversas confesiones cristianas. Da comienzo el Domingo de Ramos y finaliza elDomingo de Resurrección,¹ aunque su celebración suele iniciarse en varios lugares el viernes anterior (Viernes de Dolores) y se considera parte de la misma el Domingo de Resurrección. La fecha de la celebración es variable (entre marzo y abril según el año) ya que depende del calendario lunar. La Semana Santa va precedida por la Cuaresma, que finaliza en la Semana de Pasión donde se celebra la eucaristía en el Jueves Santo, se conmemora la Crucifixión de Jesús el Viernes Santo y la Resurrección en la Vigilia Pascual durante la noche del Sábado Santo al Domingo de Resurrección. Durante la Semana Santa tienen lugar numerosas muestras de religiosidad popular a lo largo de todo el mundo, destacando las procesiones y las representaciones de la Pasión.

EASTER POSTCARD

Easter postcards are a form of postcard that people send to each other at Easter. They have now mostly changed to e-cards rather than postcards, however their purpose remains the same.

HISTORY 

The tradition of sending Easter postcards to relatives and friends developed during the end of the 19th century. During the year 1898, there were only a few cards sent although the number of cards sent since then have increased worldwide.

In the beginning monochrome as well as colored cards were printed. Most of the time, the center of the cards contained an oversizedegg. During the first years during which Easter postcards were sent, the front side was empty. This was the space for senders to write their greetings because post offices would only allow the address and the stamp on the back side. Because of that, the artistically precious illustrations were deformed. In 1905, post offices in Austria and Germany separated the back side of the cards into two halves. The right half served as before (for the address and the stamp) and the other half was the new space for the message. In 1906 this was officially allowed by the world-post-congress in Rome.

Circa 1910, the cards were mainly monochrome pictures which were sometimes colored with children in the context with lambs, poultry, and eggs. Young girls were a symbol for luck and hope. The Easter bunny which was a personified symbol of fruitfulness, was often portrayed with eggs. German publishers were leading in the production of Easter postcards before the First World War.

During the time of the First World War, children were replaced with soldiers and a military appearance of the Easter bunny was common. After the First World War, photos no longer served as the foundation for Easter postcards instead they featured drawn colorful Easter motives; a very popular motive was Jesus in the open countryside surrounded by sheep. Cards with flowers were also common. During times of prosperity during 1898 and 1918, the cards were often created using chromolithography. Many very impressive cards still exist with silver, gold and relief-stamping.

The number of Easter postcards declined through the Second World War. Since then, the number of cards sent has declined; especially during the past decade because of the competition with telephony and e-mail.

EASTER

Easter, also called Resurrection Day, is a holiday. Among Christians, it is a celebration of Jesus Christ returning from the dead. Christians believe that it is the holiest day in the year. Some people who are not Christians celebrate it as the beginning of Spring.

Easter is not held on the same date every year. This is called a moveable feast. Currently all Christian churches agree on how the date is calculated. Easter is celebrated on the first Sunday, following the first full moon, after the Spring Equinox. This means it is celebrated in March or April. It can occur as early as March 22 and as late as April 25. Western churches, like the Roman Catholic Church, use the Gregorian calendar, while Eastern churches, like the Eastern Orthodox Church, use the Julian calendar. Because of this the date of Easter celebrations is different for these two types of churches even though the way they calculate the date is the same. In 2015 Easter was celebrated on April 5 for both the Gregorian calendar and Julian calendar.

The word "Easter" is derived from Eastre, the name of the ancient German Goddess of Spring.^[1] Her festival occurred at the vernal equinox. TheFrench word for Easter, Pâcques, comes from the Greek word for Passover, which is the Jewish holiday celebrated at the same time of the year.

                                                                 

TARJETAS DE NAVIDAD - CHRISTMAS CARD

                                       

TARJETAS NAVIDEÑAS

Las tarjetas navideñas fueron inventadas porSir Henry Cole, en 1843, caballero británico, fundador del Museo Victoria & Albert, pensando en llegar al corazon de sus amistades de un modo mas original.

Debido a la gran cantidad de amigos que tenía, decidió que debía crear un método mas cómodo y masivo de hacerles llegar su cariño en las épocas de fiestas navideñas.

Para tal efecto le encargó al artistaJohn Calcott Horsley, su amigo personal, que diseñara una postal donde pudiera escribirle unos breves deseos de felicidad y posteriormente poder firmar personalmente.

La escena central de la tarjeta mostraba una familia numerosa, sentada alrededor de una gran mesa, brindando. A los lados, dos paneles mostraban dibujos de alimentos y ropa para los pobres. El saludo impreso decía: "Feliz Navidad y Año Nuevo para usted".

Algunas versiones dicen que la imagen de dicha postal fue la de un muchacho con una bufanda roja pero la versión de la familia es la mas fundada.

Un millar de copias litografiadas, coloreadas a mano, fueron realizadas en la imprenta Jobbins en Londres y publicadas por Summerly’s Home Treasury Office.

Se vendieron en aquel entonces, en un chelín cada una y así nació la gigantesca industria de las tarjetas de Navidad.

Las postales que le sobraron fueron vendidas posteriormente en Old Bond Street con un éxito incalculable.

Ya para 1860 mas gente podía afrontar el gasto del envío de tarjetas pero no con tanta calidad.

Abarataron los colores para su impresión y pronto se hicieron moda, creando una nueva industria para artistas e imprenteros.

Para 1880 la industria de las tarjetas navideñas crecía un 10 % por año ,llegando a 11.5 millones de postales sólo durante la semana de navidad, a la entrada del nuevo siglo.

El país mas generador de este estilo de salutación es Gran Bretaña. El ultimo año llegó enviar mas de 2 billones de tarjetas navideñas y es el que envía más cantidad per capita.

Hoy, la industria se ve opacada por el sistema de saludos virtuales que nos ofrece Internet. Pero lo que no cambia es el sentido con el que fueron inventadas.

Desear PAZ, AMOR y PROSPERIDAD para todo el mundo.

CHRISTMAS CARD

A Christmas card (also called holiday card in the U.S.) is a greeting card sent as part of the traditional celebration of Christmas in order to convey between people a range of sentiments related to the Christmas and holiday season. Christmas cards are usually exchanged during the weeks preceding Christmas Day by many people (including non-Christians) in Western society and in Asia. The traditional greeting reads "wishing you a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year". There are innumerable variations on this greeting, many cards expressing more religious sentiment, or containing a poem, prayer, Christmas song lyrics or Biblical verse; others stay away from religion with an all-inclusive "Season's greetings".

A Christmas card is generally commercially designed and purchased for the occasion. The content of the design might relate directly to the Christmas narrative with depictions of the Nativity of Jesus, or have Christian symbols such as the Star of Bethlehem or a whitedove representing both the Holy Spirit and Peace. Many Christmas cards show Christmas traditions, such as seasonal figures (e.g.,Santa Claus, snowmen, and reindeer), objects associated with Christmas such as candles, holly, baubles, and Christmas trees, and Christmastime activities such as shopping, caroling, and partying, or other aspects of the season such as the snow and wildlife of the northern winter. Some secular cards depict nostalgic scenes of the past such as crinolined shoppers in 19th century streetscapes; others are humorous, particularly in depicting the antics of Santa and his elves.

HISTORY

The first Christmas cards were commissioned by Sir Henry Cole and illustrated by John Callcott Horsley in London on the 1st of May 1843.^[1][2][3] The central picture showed three generations of a family raising a toast to the card's recipient: on either side were scenes of charity, with food and clothing being given to the poor.^[4] Allegedly the image of the family drinking wine together proved controversial, but the idea was shrewd: Cole had helped introduce the Penny Post three years earlier. Two batches totaling 2,050 cards were printed and sold that year for a shilling each.^[5]

Early English cards rarely showed winter or religious themes, instead favoring flowers, fairies and other fanciful designs that reminded the recipient of the approach of spring. Humorous and sentimental images of children and animals were popular, as were increasingly elaborate shapes, decorations and materials. At Christmas 1873, the lithograph firm Prang and Mayer began creatinggreeting cards for the popular market in England. The firm began selling the Christmas card in America in 1874, thus becoming the first printer to offer cards in America. Its owner, Louis Prang, is sometimes called the "father of the American Christmas card."^[6] By the 1880s, Prang was producing over five million cards a year by using the chromolithography process of printmaking.^[1] However, the popularity of his cards led to cheap imitations that eventually drove him from the market. The advent of the postcard spelled the end for elaborate Victorian-style cards, but by the 1920s, cards with envelopes had returned. The extensive Laura Seddon Greeting Card Collection from the Manchester Metropolitan University gathers 32,000 Victorian and Edwardian greeting cards, printed by the major publishers of the day,^[7] including Britain’s first commercially produced Christmas card.^[8]

The production of Christmas cards was, throughout the 20th century, a profitable business for many stationery manufacturers, with the design of cards continually evolving with changing tastes and printing techniques. The now widely-recognized brand Hallmark was established in 1913 by Joyce Hall with the help of brother Rollie Hall to market their self-produced Christmas cards.^[9] The Hall brothers capitalized on a growing desire for more personalized greeting cards, and reached critical success when the outbreak ofWorld War I increased demand for cards to send to soldiers.^[9] The World Wars brought cards with patriotic themes. Idiosyncratic "studio cards" with cartoon illustrations and sometimes risque humor caught on in the 1950s. Nostalgic, sentimental, and religious images have continued in popularity, and, in the 21st century, reproductions of Victorian and Edwardian cards are easy to obtain. Modern Christmas cards can be bought individually but are also sold in packs of the same or varied designs. In recent decades changes in technology may be responsible for the decline of the Christmas card. The estimated number of cards received by American households dropped from 29 in 1987 to 20 in 2004.^[10] Email and telephones allow for more frequent contact and are easier for generations raised without handwritten letters - especially given the availability of websites offering free email Christmas cards. Despite the decline, 1.9 billion cards were sent in the U.S. in 2005 alone.^[11] Some card manufacturers now provide E-cards. In the UK, Christmas cards account for almost half of the volume of greeting card sales, with over 668.9 million Christmas cards sold in the 2008 festive period.^[12] In mostly non-religious countries (e.g. Czech Republic), the cards are rather called New Year Cards, however they are sent before Christmas and the emphasis (design, texts) is mostly given to the New Year, omitting religious symbols.